Mind of a Murderer

What is the biological explanation for why people exhibit violent behavior?

From the video, "Mind of the Murderer," it states several interesting factors that trigger the biological explanations for why people exhibit violent behavior obliviously. Crime, what makes them different? We can say that murderers are distinguished between two types of different sources. An natural murderer, or a nurtured murderer. However, most say a nurtured murderer. Murderers are made not born.
In the frontal lobe, it provides the judgment for the people to judge on the situation.
In the research, scars on the murderers showed the corrugating evidence found. This shows the torture, which establishes the the history of abuse of one's life. This will trigger crucial events with additional mental illness. Researchers say that these ideas comes and go, however the trialed people are sympathetic from the trials and abused experiences.
These people do not think about the future, and their brain are suitable for options for unappropriated behaviors. For example, will it be punishment or reward for their behaviors are never imaged in their brains.
Overall, brain damage is said to be shown from insanity, and early experiences.
One example of this was, Shawcross. He killed all his family, and this was from his peculiar childhood with special distinguished personalities. He was suffering from unspeakable abuse, and this caused his motivation of being a crucial murderer.

Stress: Portrait of a Killer

How is the stress response beneficial to us ( why do we have the stress response?)

Stress can be quite beneficial. Research shows that we need to optimize our stress, not necessarily to reduce it because there is an ideal level of stress in which we're most likely actually to be able to accomplish the things we need to accomplish. For example, when we work with medical students here who feel stressed, if they're overly stressed by their exams or by the tasks that they're asked to perform, if they attach lots of significance to doing well on exams, and put themselves under a lot of pressure, their stress level is too high, and their performance isn't optimal at all. On the other hand, if we have a medical student who feels as though he or she has learned this material before and doesn't get stressed enough about it, their job performance, or their exam performance, is likely to suffer as well. So there's a critical middle ground where stress actually helps us to perform at our best.


How is the stress response different in humans than in animals?

A measurable and dangerous response is stress response, and it differs between humans and animals. Stress typically describes a negative concept that can have an impact on one’s mental and physical well-being, but it is unclear what exactly defines stress and whether or not stress is a cause, an effect, or the process connecting the two. With organisms as complex as humans, stress can take on entirely concrete or abstract meanings with highly subjective qualities, satisfying definitions of both cause and effect in ways that can be both tangible and intangible.
In animals, they are under some sort of physiological stress every day, sometimes as a direct result of our care for them, but many of them stay healthy throughout their lives. Why do some animals (including people under this category) ‘suffer’ from stress while others seem to sail through life?

There are also psychological and emotional demands made on horses, as in my original dictionary definition; we all have demands made on us all the time. Work demands my time and attention, the horses demand that I feed them, the bills demand that I pay them…. However, I have the outer and inner resources to deal with these demands and do not consider them unreasonable, therefore I am not suffering from stress. 

Most of our animals have unreasonable demands made on them every day. Horses are asked to live without company, and then taken out to run around in circles while being kicked in the sides and blamed for our own lack of skill! Some animals have the inner and outer resources to deal with it; others don’t and will succumb to stress related illness. Every animal develops strategies to deal with stress, some of those strategies are subtle and some attract our attention when they become disease or behavioural problems.

How each individual deals with stress depends on several factors:

• Genetics
• Life experience
• Current management, including the owner’s character.

Highly strung animals whose flight/fight response is easily activated, such as thoroughbred horses are more likely to show signs that are easily recognizable as stress as they will act out their emotions. Hence I see a lot of Thoroughbreds with stable vices, or stereotypical behaviours.

Animals with more stoic temperaments may cope with their stress by freezing. A horse who freezes often looks as if it is happy in its stable; it stands there quietly, eyes glazed, but is actually internalising its stress and has ‘checked out’. These personality types are more likely to display symptoms of their stress physically,  skin conditions or digestive problems or other ‘mysterious’ conditions that don’t clear up.

Animals who have a good start in life, with minimum disruption and all their basic physiological and psychological needs fulfilled, are better prepared to deal with the naturally occurring stresses of life. If foals are not handled with sympathy and understanding, weaned too early, or introduced to new things wrongly they are more likely to develop problems; their body and brain become stuck in ‘stress’ mode. Learning is a stressor of its own and any additional stress seriously disrupts the brains ability to absorb information.

Many of our animals are stressed out, and most of the time we do not even recognise it. To help an animal whose stress response is constantly ‘on’ it is necessary to find out if the stressor is still present or if it is a result of ‘post traumatic stress’. There are many simple, natural ways to reduce stress so that your horse can stay healthy, or recover from past experiences. The more we understand the mechanism of stress and what it really means to an animal, the better we can be at resolving stress for animal and owner, leading to improved well-being all around.

Why are baboons a useful creature to study in terms of stress?

There are more variables to study from, and baboons are more like humans.

Explain the negative consequences scientists have discovered are created by stress.

Illness

Illness is a stress as well as an outcome of stress. Illness strains physical resources and makes an animal feel vulnerable. In the wild, horses often retreat from the herd until they are well. The main threat for herbivores is from predators, but illness also makes them vulnerable within the group. All animals are likely to be more aggressive/self-protective when ill.

Deposits: reduce all other stressors when an animal is ill; provide a safe quiet environment; use essential oils to stimulate immune system and reduce stress (The list is long in this category as almost all essential oils do this to a degree, but key immune stimulants are: Lemon (Citrus limonum), Angelica root (Angelica archangelica), Ravensara (Ravensara aromatica), Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides)).

Accident

Accidents trigger a massive stress response and often cause on-going pain and trauma. Even minor accidents interfere with the body’s ‘electric circuits’ or flow of energy and are one of the primary causes of bodily imbalance, which can lead to physical and behavioural problems later on. Medical procedures and aftercare also cause physical stress (many modern medicines are toxic, administration of medicines and wound dressing is uncomfortable) and mental stress (forced confinement, pain, vulnerability). Past accidents are significant when choosing the correct essential oils for an animal.

Deposits: reset the ‘electric circuits’ using essential oils (Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum)), acupuncture/pressure, kinesiology; detox the body with essential oils (Juniperberry (Juniperis communis) Seaweed (Fucus vesiculosa), carrotseed (Daucus carota), herbs, clay.

Pain

Many horses have permanent low-grade pain or discomfort, either in their legs or backs. Prey animals do not show their pain easily as this makes them vulnerable to attack from predators, but most displays of bad temper in horses (tail swishing, teeth grinding, biting etc) arise from underlying pain, as do a variety of other problems such as poor performance or poor condition. We tend to think that if the horse is non-reactive when its back is palpated all is well, but maybe his legs are aching all the time (I know mine do if I stand on concrete day in and day out), or her ovaries are sensitive.

Deposits: allow horses to roll and buck freely to stretch their muscles; take their shoes off; don’t use rugs; check saddle fit; make sure you are balanced and supple when riding; offer essential oils (Marjoram, yarrow, ginger peppermint); reduce all stress so muscle tension relaxes; provide hands-on healing, such as cranio-sacral, equine touch, massage.

Vaccination and worming

Animals (including humans) can live quite happily with a low level of worms, in fact it might even be beneficial; an increase in asthma and allergic response has been linked with an absence of parasitic worms. Our animals are on an increasingly vigorous worming protocol, whether they need it or not, but every time you poison the worms you also poison the animal, placing a stress on the liver and kidneys. We also expose our horses to chemical stress every time we vaccinate. We should seriously consider the need for every vaccination we give.

Deposits: Control worms with herbs, clay; remove from grazing areas; monitor worm load with regular worm counts (if a horse cannot control worm population naturally it is an indicator of other stress so assess what it could be, feed pro-biotics to support stomach function). Examine your vaccination program and see what is really necessary, balance the percentages of danger to exposure with the stress you put on your horse’s immune system.

Inappropriate diet

Horses need to trickle feed, eating small amounts of roughage almost constantly. If they are not allowed to fulfil this basic physiological need they will develop physical problems such as ulcers and stereotypical behaviours (also know as stable vices) such as cribbing and weaving. Another major cause of physical stress is overfeeding. Most horses are overfed for the amount of work they do and most commercial foods are over-processed, then coated in sugar (molasses) to make them palatable.

Deposits: feed ad-lib hay, grass or oat straw. There are many endurance horses competing successfully in Europe on forage based foods, (pelleted alfalfa and other grasses, along with unmolassed sugar beet), but if fast burning energy is required (e.g. for racehorses) then you can add whole oats that have been soaked in water over night, and a protein supplement

Weaning

Animals in the wild only suffer sudden and permanent separation from their mother and siblings if the mother dies, so sudden weaning triggers a peak stress response that a young animal is ill equipped to deal with. Many behaviour problems, fears and insecurities arise from weaning too early, not only does the loss of mother and siblings trigger fear for your own survival, in the wild animals learn all the life-skills of a well-rounded adult from older animals in their group. Early weaning means they will never have a chance to learn these essential social skills; the older animals also protect them if their natural inquisitiveness leads them into danger, or play gets too rough, so they learn in a safe environment. Horses are almost always weaned too early and abruptly, stressing both mother and foal. Many animals are also subjected to a host of other environmental stresses at weaning time such as worming, gelding and moving home.

Deposits: wean as late as possible, leave it to the mother if you can but not before 6 months; wean into a herd with mixed ages, so they have guidance and security, not all weanlings together; reduce all other stressors; offer essential oils of Neroli (Citrus aurantium var. bigarade), Violet leaf absolute (Viola odorata), Roman chamomile (Anthemis nobilis) Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis)

Confinement

Horses naturally roam through large territories, the homeostasis of a horse is based on free movement so confinement puts stress on the whole system but particularly circulation, digestion, lungs and the mental state. Long periods of confinement, such as a horse on box-rest are highly stressful.

Deposits: do not stable horses, provide as much space as possible for your horses to roam. If confinement is necessary for healing an injury offer essential oils of peppermint (mentha piperita), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus, radiata or dives) to stimulate the brain and circulation.

Isolation

Solitary confinement is one of the worst punishments for any social animal. Horses feel unsafe if they are left alone; time spent in free communication with their own species nourishes and educates.

Deposits: provide company preferably a ‘family’ herd of mixed ages and sexes.

Overcrowding

Every animal needs a certain amount of ‘personal space’ in order to feel comfortable. Animals who live in groups need to be able to distance themselves from each other in order to signal submission and reduce tensions; overcrowding means they cannot move away when threatened so are more likely to be attacked. Overcrowding also increases the competition for food, which is a basic source of stress.

Deposits: Do not overcrowd! Watch your herd and make sure none of them is being bullied or isolated. As a minimum requirement, each horse should be able to stand in an imaginary circle with a radius of two horse lengths without touching another horse’s circle.

Changes in routine or environment

Loss of control of one’s own environment is a major stress. Horses who are dependent on others to provide them their needs can become very distressed when their routine changes or their food is late. It takes about six weeks for a horse to adjust to a new home, longer if it is a first move; the smells, sights and sounds are all new and unidentified, so it is like landing on a new planet for them. Animals live by their instincts and in a familiar environment recognise normal sounds or smells and which ones signal danger, until they have learnt which is which in their new home they will be in a state of increased alertness. An individual’s response to change says much about his underlying stress levels - the less stress, the more adaptability.

Deposits: change routines slowly; allow 6 weeks for a horse to settle before expecting it to learn anything new; offer essential oils of Cedarwood (Cedrus atlantica), cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), geranium (pelargonium graveolens).

Boredom

Just as too much stress can cause problems, so can too little. Body and mind need challenges to stay healthy, a small boost of stress hormones followed by the relaxation response, this is how mammals are designed. In a natural environment the daily search for food, water and shelter, plus the social interaction of a group of animals provides all the mental, physical and emotional interaction a horse needs, a domestic environment often denies this. Repetitive work can also be stressful.

Deposits: turn your horse out with a herd; play with your horse, teach him tricks, take him for walks; avoid unnecessary repetition when training; offer essential oils (peppermint (mentha piperita), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), lemon (Citrus limonum)

The Human as Stressor

Finally one of the most common causes of stress for animals is humans! You could say that humans are the only source of chronic stress for horses, after all if it wasn’t for us they would be living free and wild. As much as we love horses, as close as we move to a natural model, the bottom line is horsemanship is not natural, we are using horses for our own advantage and as soon as we sit on a horse we are damaging it physically.

I do not advocate turning all our horses loose, (I tried it once and they were all back in the corral as fast as they could gallop!) for better or worse we are their caretakers, our responsibility is to be a good guardian and an attentive student. What horses ask from us is that we respect them as individuals, allow them the space and freedom they need to be horses and learn the lessons they offer us every day.

Humans and animals live on different planets, the animal’s planet is instinctive, they live through their senses, they do not plan for the future or hold grudges from the past they are always here/now; horses talk with their body and cannot lie, they are present. Humans on the other hand say one thing and mean another and dream about tomorrow while missing the moment.

One of the opportunities horses offer is a nudge in the direction of self-awareness; the more we understand ourselves and  are aware of what we are unconsciously saying with our bodies, in other words the more united we are inside ourselves the less we will stress our horses. 

Deposit: listen to what your horse is saying to you, if there is any disharmony the first place to look is in yourself; take up tai chi, aikido, qi gong, yoga; study Feldenkreis  or Alexander Technique; most importantly remember to play, horses look for clear, fair leadership that makes sense to them, but they also enjoy hanging out as buddies doing nothing very much, and a good scratch!

What has been discovered about stress from the famous longitudinal study of baboons?

Hierarchy, and lack of resources takes place in the stress of the baboons. 

Evolutionary Psychology

Describe the strength and limitations of comparative psychology.

Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. This type of method often utilizes the comparative method to study animal behavior. The comparative method involves comparing the similarities and differences among species to gain and understanding of evolutionary relationships. The comparative method can also be used to compare modern species of animals to ancient species.

Comparative Psychology are useful findings, improves in learning and language theories, and a interesting insight into the animal world. However, the ethics of animal testing is one obstacle in this method, have to question about the generalized results from animals to humans, and the subjective researchers working with dolphins and primates that have been criticized for becoming overly attached to the research and exaggerating findings are disadvantages that comparative psychology provides.


Explain the reductionist approach used in behavioral genetics.

Behavioral genetics is the field of study that examines the role of genetics in animal (also human) behavior. This often associates with the "nature versus nurture" debate, behavioral genetics is highly interdisciplinary, involving contributions from biology, genetics, epigenetics, ethology, psychology, and statistics. This studies the inheritance of behavioral traits.

The primary goal of behavioral genetics is to establish casual relationships between genes and behavior. One common approach is the reductionist approach. In this method, scientists first observe a psychological or behavioral function. Next, using known functions of brain systems and neurotransmitter systems, scientists correlate behavior to these brain areas. Once scientists are able to map behavior to biological systems, they can turn to genetics to understand the development of these biological systems.

Stress: Case Study: The Dutch Hunger Winter of 1944

 Dutch Hunger Winter

From the start of November 1944 to the late spring of 1945 reveals the suffer of the tragedy known as the ‘Dutch hunger winter.’ Remarkably depicted as a bitterly cold period in Western Europe causing a hardship on a continent that had been ruined from four-years of brutal war. Being under German control resulted in a catastrophic drop in the availability of food to the Dutch population. In worse cases, the populations were given a situation to survive by only 30 percent of the normal daily calorie intake. For example, people ate grass, tulip bulbs, and burned every scrap of furniture they could get their hands on, to stay alive. By the time the food supplies were restored in May 1945, more than 20,000 people had died.

The first participant was the effect of the famine on the birth weights of children who had been in the womb during the devastation. If a mother was well fed around the time of conception and malnourished only for the last few months of the pregnancy, her baby was likely to be born small. However, if the mother suffered malnutrition only for the first three months, but then was well fed, she was likely to have a normal size baby. 

As a result of this aspect, with continuous research of these groups of babies for decades, became essential. The babies who were born small stayed small all their lives, with lower obesity rates than the general population. Even though they had access to food as much as they wanted later on, their bodies never got over the early period of malnutrition. On the other hand, children whose mothers had been malnourished only early in pregnancy had higher obesity rates than normal. Even though those individuals had seemed perfectly healthy at birth, something had happened to their devel­opment in the womb that affected them for decades after. And it wasn’t just the fact that something had happened that mattered, it was when it happened. Events that take place in the first three months of gestation, a stage when the fetus is really very small and developing very rapidly, can affect an individual for the rest of his or her life. Even more extraordinarily, some of these effects seem to be present in the children of this group, that is, in the grandchildren of the women who were malnour­ished during the first three months of their pregnancy. Therefore, something that happened in one pregnant population affected their children’s children. That raised the really puzzling question of how those effects were passed on to subsequent generations.

The second participants were schizophrenia patient. This is a dreadful mental illness, which, if untreated, can completely overwhelm and disable an affected person.   Patients may present with a range of symptoms including delusions, hallucinations, and enormous difficulties focusing mentally. People with schizophrenia may become completely incapable of dis­tinguishing between the “real world” and their own hallucinatory and delusional realm. Normal cogni­tive, emotional, and societal responses are lost. There is a terrible misconception, however, that people with schizophrenia are likely to be violent and dangerous. For the great majority of patients that isn’t the case at all, and the people most likely to suffer harm because of this illness are the patients themselves. Individuals with schizophrenia are fifty times as likely to attempt suicide as healthy individuals. 

Schizophrenia is tragically common. It affects between 0.5 and 1 percent of the population in most countries and cultures, which means that there may be more than 50 million people alive today who are suffering from this condition. Scientists have known for some time that genetics plays a strong role in determining if a person will develop this illness. We know this because if one of a pair of identical twins has schizophrenia, there is a 50 percent chance that their twin will also have the condition. That is much higher than the 1 percent risk in the general population or even the 15 percent risk for fraternal twins. Identical twins have exactly the same genetic code as each other. They share the same womb, and usually they are brought up in very similar environments. When we consider this, it doesn’t seem surprising that if one of the twins develops schizophrenia, the chance that his or her twin will also develop the illness is very high. In fact, we have to start wondering why it isn’t higher. Flip a coin—heads they win, tails they lose. Variations in the environment are unlikely to account for this, and even if they did, how would those environmental effects have such profoundly different impacts on two genetically identical people?

The last case was a small child, less than three years old, is abused and neglected by his or her parents. Eventually, the state intervenes, and the child is taken away from the biological parents and placed with foster or adoptive parents. These new caregivers love and cherish the child, doing everything they can to create a secure home, full of affection. The child stays with these new parents throughout the rest of his or her childhood and adolescence, and into young adulthood.

As a result, sometimes everything works out well for such chil­dren. They grow up into happy, stable individuals indistinguishable from all their peers who had normal, non-abusive childhoods. But often, tragically, it doesn’t work out this way. Children who have suffered from abuse or neglect in their early years grow up with a substantially higher risk of adult mental health problems than the gen­eral population. All too often such a child grows up into an adult at high risk of depression, self-harm, drug abuse, and suicide. In some cases, the adult may have absolutely no recollection of the traumat­ic events, and yet he or she may suffer the consequences mentally and emotionally for the rest of life.

In conclusion, these three case studies seem very different on the surface. The first is mainly about nutrition, especially of the unborn child. The second is about the differences that arise between genetically identical individuals. The third is about long-term psychological damage as a result of childhood abuse.But these stories are linked at a very fundamental bio­logical level. They are all examples of epigenetics. Epigenetics is the new discipline that is revolutionizing biol­ogy. Whenever two genetically identical individuals are nonidentical in some way we can measure, this is called epigenetics. When a change in environment has biological consequences that last long after the event itself has vanished into distant memory, we are seeing an epigenetic effect in action.

Research Methodology

Research Methodology
 
Laboratory Experiment
This type of experiment is controlled under highly controlled conditions.Laboratory Experiments allow precise control of variables. the purpose of control is to enable the experimenter to isolate one key variable selected in order to observe its effects on other variables. Overall, control is intended in order to identify that independent variables are the only ones that influence dependent variables.

Laboratory Experiment is argued that it allows us to make statements about cause and effect, because unlike non-experimental methods they involve the deliberate manipulation of one variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant.
Additionally, experiments can usually be easily replicated. However, this method is not always typical of real life situations. These types of experiments are often conducted in strange and contrived environments in which people are asked to perform unusual or even bizarre tasks. The artificiality of the situation, together with the 'unnatural' things that the participants may be asked to do, jointly produces a distortion of behaviour. Therefore, it should be difficult to generalise findings from experiments because they are not usually ecologically valid (true to real life).
A further difficulty with the experimental method is demand characteristics. Demand characteristics are all the cues which convey to the participant the purpose of the experiment. If a participant knows they are in an experiment they may seek cues about how they think they are expected to behave. Another problem with the experimental method concerns ethics. For example, experiments nearly always involve deceiving participants to some extent and it is important to recognise that there are very many areas of human life which cannot be studied using the experimental method because it would be simply too unethical to do so.

Example
An example is the Reicher and Haslam carried out this experimental case study to examine the consequences of randomly dividing men into groups of prisoners and guards within a specially constructed institution over a period of 8 days.
Unlike the prisoners, the guards failed to identify with their role. This made the guards reluctant to impose their authority and they were eventually overcome by the prisoners. Participants then established an egalitarian social system. When this proved unsustainable, moves to impose a tyrannical regime met with weakening resistance.
Haslam and Reicher suggest that it is powerlessness and the failure of groups that makes tyranny psychologically acceptable.


Field Experiment.
A field experiment is an experiment that is conducted in ‘the field ’. That is, in a real world situation. In field experiments the participants are not usually aware that that they are participating in an experiment.
The independent variable is still manipulated unlike in natural experiments. Field experiments are usually high in ecological validity and may avoid demand characteristics as the participants are unaware of the experiment. However, in field experiments it is much harder to control confounding variables and they are usually time consuming and expensive to conduct.
In field experiments it is not usually possible to gain informed consent from the participants and it is difficult to debrief the participants.
The strengths: 
1. Mundane realism-i.e. can apply the results to everyday life (everyday environment).
2. Less prone to demand characteristics (i.e. the participant is more likely to behave normally instead of either pleasing the researcher or going against the researcher).
The main disadvantages:
1. Less control over extraneous variables (i.e. other things that could affect the results other than the IV).
2. Less replicable than Lab experiments (i.e. harder to repeat because every set of participants' everyday environment will be slightly different).

Example
Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin carried out a field experiment to investigate helping behaviour towards different types of victims.
Piliavin et al. note in their study that social psychologists became particularly interested in the behaviour of bystanders following the case of the brutal murder of Kitty Genovese in New York in 1964. The murder attracted interest from psychologists because according to the press not one person out of the 40 people, who witnessed the attack lasting over half an hour, tried to help or contacted the police.
Many laboratory studies were carried out by social psychologists to test bystander apathy. That is. the phenomenon of when observers of an emergency situation do not intervene. Importantly social psychologists looked for the cause of bystander behaviour not in the type of people who do or do not help but in the situational factors which influence helping behaviour.

Natural (Quasi) Experiment
Natural Experiment is when the independent variables are not manipulated and occurred by in nature.
In a quasi experiment the researcher takes advantage of pre-existing conditions such as age, sex or an event that the researcher has no control over such as a participants’ occupation. A strength of quasi experiments is that participants are often unaware that they are taking part in an investigation and they may not be as artificial as laboratory experiments. However, it is argued that with quasi experiments it is harder to establish causal relationships because the independent variable is not being directly manipulated by the researcher.
It is worth noting that quasi experiments are very common in psychology because ethically and practically they are the only design that can be used.

Example
An example occurred in Helena, Montana during the period from June 2002 to December 2002 when a smoking ban was in effect in all public spaces in Helena including bars and restaurants. Helena is geographically isolated and served by only one hospital. It was observed that the rate of heart attacks dropped by 60% while the smoking ban was in effect.


The variable which is being manipulated by the research is called the independent variable.
The change in behavior measured by the research is the dependent variable.
All other variables which might affect the results and therefore give us a false set of results are confounding variables.
Research Hypothesis is the paring down of the problem into something testable and falsifiable.

Null Hypothesis is a hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify.
Treatment Group is the item or subject that is manipulated
Control Group is identical to all other item or subjects that you are examining with the exception that it does not receive the treatment or the experimental manipulation that the treatment group receives.


References:
http://www.holah.co.uk/page-detail.php?slug=experimental
http://www.holah.karoo.net/glossary.htm#L

Ethics on Research

Ethical Issues on the Research Topic of Psychology


Landis' Facial Expressions Experiment (1924)
This experiment was to develop an experiment to determine whether different emotions create facial expressions specific to that emotion.  The aim of this experiment was to see if all people have a common expression when feeling disgust, shock, joy, and so on.
The overall consequences of the study were actually more important for their evidence that people are willing to do almost anything when asked in a situation. The study did not prove that humans have a common set of unique facial expressions.
In my opinion, this experiment regarding the fact that it had the permissions and most of the permissions, it does not make sense, and it does not seem ethical enough to prove any theory.
For example, it does not follow the rules of the quantitative nor the qualitative data, by the permission of the participants and perform the experiments. But most of all the design aspect of the psychological experiment was not fully informed for the participants which made them mentally terrified. In worse cases, could go to mentally ill situations.


Little Albert (1920)
John Watson, father of behaviorism, tested the idea of whether fear was innate or a conditioned response. Little Albert was the nine month old infant, which was chosen from a hospital, was tested to be exposed to a white rabbit, a white rat, a monkey, masks with and without hair, cotton wool, burning newspaper, and a miscellanea of other things for two months without any sort of conditioning.
However, the experiment is that from the procedure, Little Albert was not desensitized to his fear. He left the hospital before Watson could do so.
Despite the fact of John Watson's crucial experiment on Little Albert, it really is unethical to perform this kind of experiment. For example, the baby has its rights for the experiment but was traumatized with all kinds of horrible situations, and when you are in an orphanage the guardian has all the rights to protect the babies, but John Watson did none of them to take care of the Little Albert, which left the poor baby with mentally retarded situation all throughout his life according to research.

Aaron T. Beck

Aaron T. Beck 

 

Aaron T. Beck was born on July 18, 1921, in Rhode Island. He graduated from Brown University in 1942 and was an exemplary student, achieving magna cum laude and earning the William Gaston Prize for Excellence in Oratory and the Francis Wayland Scholarship. He continued his studies at Yale Medical School and earned his medical degree from there in 1946. Beck spent most of his career studying psychoanalysis, and in the 1960’s, began exploring other therapeutic techniques. While at the University of Pennsylvania, Beck struggled to find a way to help his depressed clients better capture their emotions. He realized that many of his depressed clients experienced recurring negative thoughts and that as long as they believed these thoughts to be true, they would continue to have symptoms of depression. He theorized that in order to change the symptoms, he must change their distorted thinking. This belief led to the development of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. In an effort to better gauge the symptoms of depressed individuals, he initially conducted research into the psychoanalytic theories of depression. He developed a different theoretical-clinical approach that he labeled cognitive therapy. Since 1959 he has directed funded research investigations of the psychopathology of depression, suicide, anxiety disorders, panic disorders, alcoholism, drug abuse, personality disorders, and schizophrenia and of cognitive therapy of these disorders. His current work focuses on disseminating empirically tested cognitive therapy treatments into community settings to investigate the efficacy and effectiveness of these therapies when implemented in real-world settings. He has developed the Beck Initiative, an innovative collaborative relationship with the City of Philadelphia's Department of Mental Health/Mental Retardation Services to train community therapists to conduct cognitive therapy. In addition, he is investigating cognitive therapy treatment for schizophrenia. He has been listed as one of the “10 individuals who shaped the face of American Psychiatry” and the most influential psychotherapist among American psychologists. 

Cognitive Triad Therapy: It is a triad of types of negative thought present in depression proposed by Aaron Beck. 

The triad involves negative thoughts about

1. The self (i.e., self is worthless)
2. The world/environment (i.e., world is unfair)
3. The future (i.e., future is hopeless)

Beck's negative triad holds that depressed people have negative thoughts about themselves, their experiences in the world, and the future.  For instance, a depressed person might think, "I didn't get the job because I'm terrible at interviews. Interviewers never like me, and no one will ever want to hire me." In the same situation, a person who is not depressed might think, "The interviewer wasn't paying much attention to me. Maybe she already had someone else in mind for the job. Next time I'll have better luck, and I'll get a job soon." Beck also identified the following cognitive distortions, which can contribute to depression: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralization, magnification and minimization^.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapeutic approach that addresses dysfunctional emotions, behaviors, and cognitions through a goal-oriented, systematic process. The name refers to behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and to therapy based upon a combination of basic behavioral and cognitive research. CBT is effective for the treatment of a variety of conditions, including mood, anxiety, personality, eating, substance abuse, tic, and psychotic disorders. Many CBT treatment programs for specific disorders have been evaluated for efficacy; the health-care trend of evidence-based treatment, where specific treatments for symptom-based diagnoses are recommended, has favored CBT over other approaches such as psychodynamic treatments.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT), is a form of psychotherapy in which the therapist and the client work together as a team to identify and solve problems. Therapists use the Cognitive Model to help clients overcome their difficulties by changing their thinking, behavior, and emotional responses. Cognitive therapy has been found to be effective in more than 1000 outcome studies for a myriad of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, and substance abuse, among others, and it is currently being tested for personality disorders. It has also been demonstrated to be effective as an adjunctive treatment to medication for serious mental disorders such as bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Cognitive therapy has been extended to and studied for adolescents and children, couples, and families. Its efficacy has also been established in the treatment of certain medical disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome, hypertension, fibromyalgia, post-myocardial infarction depression, noncardiac chest pain, cancer, diabetes, migraine, and other chronic pain disorders.